Abortion Should Be Illegal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Abortion Should Be Illegal - Essay Example A woman's body is her personal sanctum. Once that sanctum is violated by a brutal act of sexual intercourse, the woman should have every right to â€Å"deal† with any problems arising from that encounter. Let's call it what it is, women should have the right to an abortion when she is raped. The modern day woman also fights for her right to control her body, rather than having a cultist sect or government control what she can and cannot do with her body. There are even a greater number of reasons that a sector of women in today's society support a woman's right to have legalized abortion. It is disturbing how all of the attention when it comes to abortion is cast solely upon the rights of women and what they believe to be their rights to their body. But what about the unborn child? The unborn child also has rights of his own. The minute he is conceived, the woman's body becomes his inner sanctum as much as his mother's. Why would a woman, even if she is impregnated by abusive sexual behavior, be willing to kill an innocent child who has yet to see the good that this world has to offer, even though his entry into it would be under less that acceptable circumstances? A child has the right to life and no woman, no mother to an unborn child, has the right to dictate who will and who won't be able to live the life that the universe has offered him. It is therefore my stand that this paper shall present evidence to prove the reasons as to why abortion should remain an illegal and criminal act. Let me start off this paper by immediately presenting the counter argument to my stance. Although there are a number of highly valid reasons to consider leaving the act of abortion an illegal activity, there are still a number of people who would rather have abortion declared legal. One of the reasons that a person would support abortion has to do with the existence of back-alley abortion clinics that do the procedures in a less than sanitized environment. Due to the lac k of government supervision, the woman puts her own health and life at risk when she goes to one of these clinics to have the fetus taken out. Government regulation would make the practice of abortion regulated and force the abortion doctors to adhere to a higher standard of practice than they currently have. As such the cost of abortions could also be lowered or, even better, the procedure might even be covered by health insurance under specific situations. If the unborn child is to enter this world under less than acceptable circumstances, as in the case of rape or incest, or any scenario wherein the child would be forced to live a life shunned by his mother and her family, then it would be in the best interest of that child to not be born at all. The abortion supporters say that babies born under violent sex circumstances do not feel the love of a parent growing up and therefore becomes a part of the criminal problem of our society. Rather than creating new state wards or problem s for the state, it would be in the child's best interest to never make an entry into our world. The aforementioned arguments are some of the most common that ends up being used by pro-abortionists. However, the most compelling argument that they use asks people to become de-sensitized to the act of abortion and consider the fetus nothing more than a lump of flesh or blood, a cyst if you will, in the body of a woman since there is no heartbeat in the fetus due to an undeveloped heart for a number of weeks. Thus having an abortion within that time frame does not make it murder since there is no heartbeat existing that would change the classification of the child from fetus to unborn child (â€Å"Should Abortion Be Banned (Except in Special Circumstances

Chinese Artifacts Essay Example for Free

Chinese Artifacts Essay The artist of this calligraphy scroll, Zhao Mengfu, was highly praised by the Yuan emperor Renzong as unrivaled traditional Chinese polymath (for a lack of a better word). It is said that the emperor admired him for possessing the following seven outstanding qualities: wide learning, Song royal ancestry, elegant and charismatic appearance, pure character and righteous conduct, literary accomplishment, mastery of calligraphy and painting skills, and profound knowledge of Buddhist and Daoist teachings. As an leading and influential calligraphy during his era, Zhao was able to successfully advocate and promote many of the views that he had on Chinese calligraphy. Zhao supported a return to the ancient models, which integrated the Jin (265 – 420AD) and Tang (618 – 906AD) dynasty styles to synthesize a new norm for standard and cursive scripts. In later eras, many printed texts were modeled after the standard script that he helped create. Furthermore, the cursive style script, depicted in this scroll titled Four Anecdotes from the Life of Wang Xizhi, became the foundations of the informal calligraphic styles of those how succeeded him. One of the four anecdotes from the â€Å"Life of Wang Xizhi† tells the story of a time when Xizhi, a ‘calligraphic’ sage, was extremely fond of the [graceful appearance of] geese. In Shanyin there was a Daoist monk who had raised a flock of more than ten fine geese. One morning Wang decided to take a small boat and go there. He was delighted with the geese and wanted to buy them, but the monk refused to sell. Wang tried in vain to persuade him. Finally, the monk told Wang that he loved Daoist philosophy and had always wanted a transcription of Laozis Daodejing with its commentary by Heshanggong. He had already prepared the silk, but no one was qualified to write it. He asked if Wang would condescend to transcribe two chapters each from the Dao and De sections, for which he would give Wang the whole flock. Wang stayed for half a day to write out the chapters, then he caged the geese and returned home. (Citation) In many ways, this story possesses many aspects of traditional Daoist philosophies. Firstly, the events and interactions between the Monk and Xizhi is highly reflective of the ‘interdependence’ between beings. Furthermore, the fact that the Monk refuse to trade his geese through monetary means underlines Daoist de-emphasis of material objects, especially something as superficial as money. Rather, the Monk was willing to give up his geese for an implementation Xizhi’s skill and mastery of calligraphy. In a way, this reveals belief that an individual should play the role of what he or she was ‘meant’. In other words, the Monk’s offer of his geese for calligraphy mirrors some sort of a natural guidance for Xizhi to walk in accordance to the Way. In summary, the story told through the calligraphy of this scroll is highly relavent to the Daoist themes that were studied throughout the course. Object : Buddhist stele, Tang dynasty (618–906), ca. 700 Origins: China Material: Black limestone Size: H. 64 1/2 in. (163. 7 cm) This relic originates from the temple in the Xinxiang County in the central Chinese province of Henan. A stele is a stone or wooden slab, generally taller than it is wide, erected for funerals or commemorative purposes, most usually decorated with the names and titles of the deceased or living — inscribed, carved in relief or painted onto the slab. In this case, the Buddhist stele is made of black limestone and is curved to give the outline of the figure of Guanyin. In this stele, we see many of the symbolism commonly studied in the Chinese Buddhism. Firstly, the graceful of stance the pair of bodhisattvas implicates a noble yet welcoming gesture which is reflective of the characters theor sage-hood. Secondly, judging by the small objects inscribed on the crown – a figure of the Buddha – they represent Guanyin (Avalokiteshvara), one of the principal bodhisattvas associated with the Pure Land cult. Despite the damages accumulated over time, the gentle S-shape swing of the bodhisattvas bodies gives an essence of individuality to each of the figures. The Western Pure Land sect, derived from the teachings of the Buddha Amitabha, was the sect that attracted the largest number of followers. As we have discussed in class, this was most likely due to the motivation that salvation awaits each and every devotee in a paradise situated in the western realm of Buddhist cosmology. The ability of Buddhism to discuss subjects like the afterlife was one of the largest sources of its popularity. This black limestone stele is one of the best examples of Buddhist devotional art in the Tang period of Chinese history. Object: Central watchtower, architectural model, Eastern Han dynasty (25–220), 1st–early 3rd century Origin: China Material: Earthenware with green lead glaze Size: H. 41 in. (104. 1 cm) The Han dynasty (206 B. C. –220 A. D. ) is deemed to be one of the most important and inflectional dynasties in pre-modern China due to it lasting effects in imperial structure and formation of a national consciousness. Chinese people, until today, still refer to themselves as ‘Han Chinese†. Furthermore, the architecture styles that were established during the Han period layed the ground works for the architecture of the eras to follow. Han architecture was a grand improvement to the architecture of those that precede them; it includes vast palatial complexes, towered gateways, and city walls were built as symbols of power and prestige as well as for defense. This model art piece embodies many of the essential features of Han architecture: the overhanging tiles supported by the roof, the four sided style infrastructure and the stacking effect. In many ways, this specific model, less a few details, is reminiscent of the temple building the class visited for the lecture on Buddhism. In relation to our studies, a great variety of these architectural models were used in the decoration of the tomb in the Han era to show the status of the person being buried. Object: Spouted ritual wine vessel (guang), Shang dynasty, early Anyang period (ca. 1300–1050 b. c. ), 13th century b. c. Origin: Possibly Anyang, Henan Province, China Material: Bronze Size: W. 13 in. (33 cm) This artifact, a bronze casted vessel, dates back to the late Shang era (ca. 1300–1050 B. C. ). The shape of the wine vessel is said to be loosely based on a figure of a bird; this is identifiable through the hooked beak feature and glaring eyes effect from the face on view. As we have studied, the Shang people had many beliefs about the spiritual world. This vessel is believed to have been used to pour wine and other beverages in ceremonies involving Shang ruler and their ancestors and supernatural forces. Other feature on the vessel includes coiled serpents emerging from the wings, roaring tiger-dragons prowling along the sides, horned bird that serves as a handle. This existence an artifact of this age gives us insights into the superior technology of casting in ancient China. The complicated multilayered designs are unparalleled by other cultures of the time. It is believed that the technique used for this the bronze casting is through a ceramic mold and the usage of an interior clay core. Motel bronze is then poured into filled the empty space between the intricate design and the core. Once the clay core was emptied out, the result is the astonishing bronzed vessel with complex designed as described. Again, such artifacts can be used to validate the hypotheses and speculations about the technologies and lifestyle during an ancient civilization like the Shang.

Underlying Tensions within the Big Heat :: essays research papers fc

â€Å"A tension between placid surface and hidden corruption structures The Big Heat, and the drama deals with a struggle between those forces which try to keep the lid on and those which want to force the hidden violence out into the open† (Tom Gunning). Discuss this claim in relation to the film.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Somebody’s going to pay†¦ because he forgot to kill me, this was the tagline featured on the poster for Fritz Lang’s dark film noir classic The Big Heat which establishes the films undercurrents of violence and revenge. The plot places the films lone uncompromising homicide detective Dave Bannion, played by Glen Ford, in direct opposition to a society corrupt at almost every level, ranging from the mob to the police department itself. The films themes of corruption, violence, vengeance and individual struggle are seamlessly expressed through Lang’s use of economical storytelling, expressionistic lighting, unrelenting performances, costumes and use of set and dà ©cor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Big Heat takes its place amongst a plethora of contemporary films dealing in similar concepts of widespread social corruption, focusing especially on the prevalence of organized crime in America, from the smallest of towns to the greatest metropolis’s. Notable films include The Enforcer from 1951, Robert Wise’s The Captive City (1952), Phil Karlson’s Kansas City Confidential and The Phenix City (1952 and 1955 respectively), Jospeh Lewis’ The Big Combo (1955) and Samuel Fuller’s Underworld U.S.A. of 1961. The Big Heat from 1953 emerges as the darkest of these films. The historical context the film was produced in is hinted at within the film itself when crime boss Lagana alludes to actual life Mobster Lucky Luciano, fearing his clash with Bannion might lead him toward â€Å"the same ditch with the Lucky Luciano’s†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In discussing surfaces in The Big Heat it is important to emphasize the films literal fascination with surfaces, human faces, lighting, locations, etc. Perhaps the scene that the film is best known for is where gangster moll Debby Marsh, played by Gloria Graham, has a pot of boiling hot coffee splashed across her face by the sadistic thug Vince Stone, played by Lee Marvin. The result is that Debby’s face is terribly disfigured, a literal destruction of a surface. However, the act actually transforms Debby from a simple bimbo into the film’s heroine. Her previous character relied on good looks to charm her way into money, her main occupation being shopping. These good looks were merely a surface and deceiving, her inside actually vacant and manipulative.

A Teenager Today Essay

Advantages you might have with being a teenager is that you get your freedom. When you turn sixteen you get your drivers license which could always mean one thing, MORE FREEDOM! What I like about being a teen is the fact that you start high school and you may be the top dog according to elementary school and middle school kids. When becoming a freshman an already being in high school is that there are many clubs, groups, and sports that the regular and physically fit, student body can be apart of. When in high school you could do dance, cheerleading, baseball, ect., clubs, and maybe even JROTC which involves being physically fit to partake in this course. Also the four academic courses that you get a another chance at becoming a better student in knowledge as well as the fine arts credits that you can choose from in the registration form for high school that you get when becoming a freshman. The disadvantages of becoming a teen is the puberty stage of life. Hitting puberty means your body is changing to make you a better looking and acting teen. the other disadvantages that teens may come in contact with is the wrong group that may lead you into doing things that aren’t right. With being in the wrong group can lead to unwanted casualties that are easier to take on when you are a full adult. Being a teen sometimes leads to peer pressure when you are in a bad situation that can be avoided. Some disadvantages to becoming a teen may be driving without the right precautions in mind. Advice to other teens about becoming a teen are that you find the right group or clique to be with for your teenage years. You need to be careful with what you do because if you have parents that are over protective or just really care about your safety, make sure you don’t do anything that might get you into trouble. You need to make sure that if you are being pressured with anything just walk away or tell an adult about what is going on.Don’t go to parties and drink so much that you end up drinking and driving. If you are driving under the influence make sure that you call your parents to come get you even though you might be scared of the outcome. You also need to keep in mind that you may be pressured into trying things that are illegal, so make sure that you also say no to drugs. Things you should say no to drugs, drinking, drinking and driving, sex, pregnancy, and any other unwanted casualties that teens are not ready to handle, even though you think you might be able to , say no!’

Characterization of Grandma Essay

In the story â€Å"A Visit to Grandmother† by William Melvin Kelley, the grandma was given many characterizations based on her appearance, words, actions, and by what people say about her. All the characterization of Grandma told the readers a lot about her and made it easy for the reader to understand the story from grandma’s perspective. First off, in the story the author describes Grandma as a lucky and unique person by providing the reader with some text evidence. The author states saying that grandma has all her teeth which is unbelievable. This makes grandma unique because most people around her age have lost many of their teeth. This is one of grandma’s characterizations based on her appearance. Also, in the story Grandma told her daughter Mai, not to make the food because she does not like relying on other people, in other words she is self reliant. She does not like other people to do jobs for her just because she’s old. She might be old but she still believes that she is capable of doing things she used to do when she was younger. This is characterization of grandma based on her own words. Lastly, the reader could refer to Grandma as an unjust person based on what other people say about her. An evidence for this characterization is when one of her son said that she never treated him the same way she treated her younger son because the younger son was lighter skinned and good looking then the older son. Charles, grandma’s oldest son refers to her as an unfair person, but this was something she was never aware of because he never told her how he felt, at the end she learned something. In conclusion, grandma had many different characters some bad and some good but, after all no one is perfect. Throughout the story not only did the reader get to know Grandma, but Grandma herself got to know what kind of person she is based on her many different characters.

Escape from Sobibor essays

Escape from Sobibor essays In the movie, Escape from Sobibor, takes place in Germany during World War 2. The movie shows how horrible life for the Jews was in Sobibor, a death camp during the war. Although the prisoners in the camps went through so much devastation, they still managed to entertain themselves and make the best f their situation. They struggled to survive and in the end, they were able to liberate themselves and escape. In the beginning of the movie, hundreds of Jews would arrive to the camp by train. Though Sobibor was a death camp, newcomers were told it was strictly a labor camp. The men and women were divided in two groups. Women and children on one side and men fifteen and older on the other. The SS officers then asked for all the seamstresses and shoemakers to step out of line. The rest of the people were told they would be taken to have a hot shower and get their clothes sterilized. However, they were taken to a gas chamber where they were naked and gassed to death. Hundreds of men, women, and children were left dead. Those who made shoes and were professional seamstresses were taken into the camp and made clothes and shoes for the officers. The workers faced hunger and feared for their lives. Some Jews came up with a plan to escape from Sobibor. They began secretly making knives and other weapons. When the day came to carry out their plan, they successfully killed several SS officers. They stole guns and ammunition from them and cut off the telephone lines. That afternoon the prisoners ran out of the front gate. Others cut down the wired fences and broke through the gates. Everyone fled to the woods to reach safety. Some, however, did not make it and were shot by machineguns while trying to escape. Sixhundred prisoners attempted to escape that day and over 300 fled to safety and were saved. The main theme of the movie was survival, every man for himself. The prisoners faced hunger and disease ...

Battle of the Crater in the Civil War

Battle of the Crater in the Civil War The Battle of the Crater occurred July 30, 1864, during the American Civil War (1861-1865) and was an attempt by Union forces to break the siege of Petersburg. In March 1864, President Abraham Lincoln elevated Ulysses S. Grant to lieutenant general and gave him overall command of Union forces. In this new role, Grant decided to turn over operational control of the western armies to Major General William T. Sherman and moved his headquarters east to travel with Major General George G. Meades Army of the Potomac. The Overland Campaign For the spring campaign, Grant intended to strike General Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia from three directions. First, Meade was to ford the Rapidan River east of the Confederate position at Orange Court House, before turning west to engage the enemy. Further south, Major General Benjamin Butler was to move up the Peninsula from Fort Monroe and menace Richmond, while to the west Major General Franz Sigel destroyed the resources of the Shenandoah Valley. Commencing operations in early May 1864, Grant and Meade encountered Lee south of the Rapidan and fought the bloody Battle of the Wilderness (May 5-7). Stalemated after three days of fighting, Grant disengaged and moved around Lees right. Pursuing, Lees men renewed the fighting on May 8 at Spotsylvania Court House (May 8-21). Two weeks of costly saw another stalemate emerge and Grant again slipped south. After a brief encounter at North Anna (May 23-26), Union forces were halted at Cold Harbor in early June. To Petersburg Rather than force the issue at Cold Harbor, Grant withdrew east then moved south towards the James River. Crossing over a large pontoon bridge, the Army of the Potomac targeted the vital city of Petersburg. Situated south of Richmond, Petersburg was a strategic crossroads and rail hub which supplied the Confederate capital and Lees army. Its loss would make would Richmond indefensible (Map). Aware of Petersburgs significance, Butler, whose forces were at Bermuda Hundred, unsuccessfully attacked the city on June 9. These efforts were halted by Confederate forces under General P.G.T. Beauregard. First Attacks On June 14, with the Army of the Potomac nearing Petersburg, Grant ordered Butler to send Major General William F. Baldy Smiths XVIII Corps to attack the city. Crossing the river, Smiths assault was delayed through the day on the 15th, but finally moved forward that evening. Though he made some gains, he halted his men due to darkness. Across the lines, Beauregard, whose request for reinforcements had been ignored by Lee, stripped his defenses at Bermuda Hundred to reinforce Petersburg. Unaware of this, Butler remained in place rather than threatening Richmond. Despite shifting troops, Beauregard was badly outnumbered as Grants troops began arriving on the field. Attacking late in the day with the XVIII, II, and IX Corps, Grants men gradually pushed the Confederates back. Fighting resumed on 17th with the Confederates doggedly defending and preventing a Union breakthrough. As the fighting continued, Beauregards engineers commenced constructing a new line of fortifications closer the city and Lee began marching to the fighting. Union assaults on June 18 gained some ground but were halted at the new line with heavy losses. Unable to advance, Meade ordered his troops to dig in opposite the Confederates. The Siege Begins Having been halted by the Confederate defenses, Grant devised operations for severing the three open railroads leading into Petersburg. While he worked on these plans, elements of the Army of the Potomac manned the earthworks that had sprung up around Petersburgs east side. Among these was the 48th Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry, a member of Major General Ambrose Burnsides IX Corps. Composed largely of former coal miners, the men of the 48th devised their own plan for breaking through the Confederate lines. Armies Commanders Union Lieutenant General Ulysses S. GrantMajor General Ambrose BurnsideIX Corps Confederate General Robert E. LeeMajor General William Mahone A Bold Idea Observing that the closest Confederate fortification, Elliotts Salient, was a mere 400 feet from their position, the men of the 48th conjectured that a mine could be run from their lines under the enemy earthworks. Once complete, this mine could be packed with enough explosives to open a hole in the Confederate lines. This idea was seized upon by their commanding officer Lieutenant Colonel Henry Pleasants. A mining engineer by trade, Pleasants approached Burnside with the plan arguing that the explosion would take the Confederates by surprise and would allow Union troops to rush in to take the city. Eager to restore his reputation after his defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg, Burnside agreed to present it to Grant and Meade. Though both men were skeptical about its chances for success, they approved it with the thought that it would keep the men busy during the siege. On June 25, Pleasants men, working with improvised tools, began digging the mine shaft. Digging continuously, the shaft reached 511 feet by July 17. During this time, the Confederates became suspicious when they heard the faint sound of digging. Sinking countermines, they came close to locating the 48ths shaft. The Union Plan Having stretched the shaft under Elliotts Salient, the miners began digging a 75-foot lateral tunnel that paralleled the earthworks above. Completed on July 23, the mine was filled with 8,000 pounds of black powder four days later. As the miners were working, Burnside had been developing his attack plan. Selecting Brigadier General Edward Ferreros division of United States Colored Troops to lead the assault, Burnside had them drilled in the use of ladders and instructed them to move along the sides of the crater to secure the breach in the Confederate lines. With Ferraros men holding the gap, Burnsides other divisions would cross to exploit the opening and take the city. To support the assault, Union guns along the line were ordered to open fire following the explosion and a large demonstration was made against Richmond to draw off enemy troops. This latter action worked particularly well as there were only 18,000 Confederate troops in Petersburg when the attack began. Upon learning that Burnside intended to lead with his black troops, Meade intervened fearing that if the attack failed he would be blamed for the needless death of these soldiers. Last Minute Changes Meade informed Burnside on July 29, the day before the attack, that he would not permit Ferreros men to spearhead the assault. With little time remaining, Burnside had his remaining division commanders draw straws. As a result, the ill-prepared division of Brigadier General James H. Ledlie was given the task. At 3:15 AM on July 30, Pleasants lit the fuse to the mine. After an hour of waiting without any explosion, two volunteers entered the mine to find problem. Finding that the fuse had gone out, they re-lit it and fled the mine. A Union Failure At 4:45 AM, the charge detonated killing at least 278 Confederate soldiers and creating a crater 170 feet long, 60-80 feet wide, and 30 feet deep. As the dust settled, Ledlies attack was delayed by the need to remove obstructions and debris. Finally moving forward, Ledlies men, who had not been briefed on the plan, charged down into the crater rather than around it. Initially using the crater for cover, they soon found themselves trapped and unable advance. Rallying, Confederate forces in the area moved along the rim of the crater and opened fire on the Union troops below. Seeing the attack failing, Burnside pushed Ferreros division in to the fray. Joining the confusion in the crater, Ferreros men endured heavy fire from the Confederates above. Despite the disaster in the crater, some Union troops succeeded in moving along the right edge of the crater and entered the Confederate works. Ordered by Lee to contain the situation, the division of Major General William Mahone launched a counterattack around 8:00 AM. Moving forward, they drove Union forces back to the crater after bitter fighting. Gaining the slopes of crater, Mahones men compelled the Union troops below to flee back to their own lines. By 1:00 PM, most of the fighting had concluded. Aftermath The disaster at the Battle of the Crater cost the Union around 3,793 killed, wounded, and captured, while the Confederates incurred around 1,500. While Pleasants was commended for his idea, the resulting attack had failed and the armies remained stalemated at Petersburg for another eight months. In the wake of the attack, Ledlie (who may have been drunk at the time) was removed from command and dismissed from the service. On August 14, Grant also relieved Burnside and sent him on leave. He would not receive another command during the war. Grant later testified that though he supported Meades decision to withdraw Ferreros division, he believed that if the black troops had been permitted to lead the attack, the battle would have resulted in a victory.

Battle of Wauhatchie in the Civil War

Battle of Wauhatchie in the Civil War fBattle of Wauhatchie - Conflict Dates: The Battle of Wauhatchie was fought October 28-29, 1863, during the American Civil War (1861-1865).   Armies Commanders: Union Major General Joseph HookerBrigadier General John W. Geary3 divisions Confederate Lieutenant General James Longstreet1 division Battle of Wauhatchie - Background: Following the defeat at the Battle of Chickamauga, the Army of the Cumberland retreated north to Chattanooga.  There Major General William S. Rosecrans and his command were besieged by General Braxton Braggs Army of Tennessee.  With the situation deteriorating, the Union XI and XII Corps were detached from the Army of the Potomac in Virginia and sent west under the leadership of Major General Joseph Hooker.  In addition, Major General Ulysses S. Grant received orders to come east from Vicksburg with part of his army and assume command over all Union troops around Chattanooga.  Overseeing the newly-created Military Division of the Mississippi, Grant relieved Rosecrans and replaced him with Major General George H. Thomas.   Battle of Wauhatchie - Cracker Line: Assessing the situation, Grant implemented a plan devised by Brigadier General William F. Baldy Smith for reopening a supply line to Chattanooga.  Dubbed the Cracker Line, this called for Union supply boats to land cargo at Kelleys Ferry on the Tennessee River.  It would then move east to Wauhatchie Station and up Lookout Valley to Browns Ferry.  From there goods would re-cross the river and move over Moccasin Point to Chattanooga.  To secure this route, Smith would establish a bridgehead at Browns Ferry while Hooker moved overland from Bridgeport to the west (Map).   Though Bragg was unaware of the Union plan, he directed Lieutenant General James Longstreet, whose men held the Confederate left, to occupy Lookout Valley.  This directive was ignored by Longstreet whose men remained on Lookout Mountain to the east.  Before dawn on October 27, Smith successfully secured Browns Ferry with two brigades led by Brigadier Generals William B. Hazen and John B. Turchin.  Alerted to their arrival, Colonel William B. Oates of the 15th Alabama attempted a counterattack but was unable to dislodge the Union troops.  Advancing with three divisions from his command, Hooker reached Lookout Valley on October 28.  Their arrival surprised Bragg and Longstreet who were having a conference on Lookout Mountain.  Ã‚   Battle of Wauhatchie - The Confederate Plan: Reaching Wauhatchie Station on the Nashville Chattanooga Railroad, Hooker detached Brigadier General John W. Gearys division and proceeded north to encamp at Browns Ferry.  Due to a shortage of rolling stock, Gearys division had been reduced by a brigade and was only supported by the four guns of Knaps Battery (Battery E, Pennsylvania Light Artillery).  Recognizing the threat posed by Union forces in the valley, Bragg directed Longstreet to attack.  After assessing the Hookers deployments, Longstreet determined to move against Gearys isolated force at Wauhatchie.  To accomplish this, he ordered Brigadier General Micah Jenkins division to strike after dark.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Moving out, Jenkins sent the brigades of Brigadier Generals Evander Law and Jerome Robertson to occupy high ground south of Browns Ferry.  This force was tasked with preventing Hooker from marching south to aid Geary.  To the south, Brigadier General Henry Bennings brigade of Georgians was directed to hold a bridge over Lookout Creek and act as a reserve force.  For the assault against the Union position at Wauhatchie, Jenkins assigned Colonel John Brattons brigade of South Carolinians.  At Wauhatchie, Geary, concerned about being isolated, posted Knaps Battery on a small knoll and ordered his men to sleep with their weapons at hand.  The 29th Pennsylvania from Colonel George Cobhams brigade provided pickets for the entire division. Battle of Wauhatchie - First Contact: Around 10:30 PM, the lead elements of Brattons brigade engaged the Union pickets.  Approaching Wauhatchie, Bratton ordered the Palmetto Sharpshooters to move east of the railroad embankment in an attempt to flank Gearys line.  The 2nd, 1st, and 5th South Carolinas extended the Confederate line west of the tracks.  These movements took time in the darkness and it was not until 12:30 AM that Bratton commenced his assault.  Slowing the enemy, the pickets from the 29th Pennsylvania bought Geary time to form his lines.  While the 149th and 78th New Yorks from Brigadier General George S. Greenes brigade took a position along the railroad embankment facing east, Cobhams remaining two regiments, the 111th and 109th Pennsylvanias, extended the line west from the tracks (Map).  Ã‚   Battle of Wauhatchie - Fighting in the Dark: Attacking, the 2nd South Carolina quickly sustained heavy losses from both the Union infantry and Knaps Battery.  Hampered by the darkness, both sides were often reduced firing at the muzzle flashes of the enemy.  Finding some success on the right, Bratton attempted to slip the 5th South Carolina around Gearys flank.  This movement was blocked by the arrival of Colonel David Irelands 137th New York.  While pushing this regiment forward, Greene fell wounded when a bullet shattered his jaw.  As a result, Ireland assumed command of the brigade.  Seeking to press his attack against the Union center, Bratton slid the battered 2nd South Carolina to the left and threw forward the 6th South Carolina.   In addition, Colonel Martin Garys Hampton Legion was ordered to the far Confederate right.  This caused the 137th New York to refuse its left to prevent being flanked.  Support for the New Yorkers soon arrived as the 29th Pennsylvania, having re-formed from picket duty, took a position on their left.  As the infantry adjusted to each Confederate thrust, Knaps Battery took heavy casualties.  As the battle progressed both battery commander Captain Charles Atwell and Lieutenant Edward Geary, the generals eldest son, fell dead.  Hearing the fighting to the south, Hooker mobilized the XI Corps divisions of Brigadier Generals Adolph von Steinwehr and Carl Schurz.  Moving out, Colonel Orland Smiths brigade from von Steinwehrs division soon came under fire from Law.   Veering east, Smith began a series of assaults on Law and Robertson.  Drawing in Union troops, this engagement saw the Confederates hold their position on the heights.  Having repulsed Smith several times, Law received erroneous intelligence and ordered both brigades to withdraw.  As they departed, Smiths men attacked again and overran their position.  At Wauhatchie, Gearys men were running low on ammunition as Bratton prepared another assault.  Before this moved forward, Bratton received word that Law had withdrawn and that Union reinforcements were approaching.  Unable to maintain his position in these circumstances, he repositioned the 6th South Carolina and Palmetto Sharpshooters to cover his withdraw and began retreating from the field. Battle of Wauhatchie - Aftermath:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the fighting at the Battle of Wauhatchie, Union forces sustained 78 killed, 327 wounded, and 15 missing while Confederate losses numbered 34 killed, 305 wounded, and 69 missing.  One of the few Civil War battles fought entirely at night, the engagement saw the Confederates fail to close the Cracker Line to Chattanooga.  Over the coming days, supplies began to flow to the Army of the Cumberland.  Following the battle, a rumor circulated that Union mules had been stampeded during the battle leading the enemy to believe that they were being attacked by cavalry and ultimately their causing their retreat.  Though a stampede may have occurred, it was not the cause of the Confederate withdrawal.  Over the next month, Union strength grew and in late November Grant commenced the Battle of Chattanooga which drove Bragg from the area. Selected Sources Civil War Trust: Battle of WauhatchieCWSAC Battle Summaries: Battle WauhatchieHistory of War: Battle of Wauhatchie

Real Time Kinematic GPS (RTK GPS) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Real Time Kinematic GPS (RTK GPS) - Essay Example Both of the receivers have their coordinates; the coordinates of the first reference receiver can be determined in a geocentric frame while the second’s in relation to the first receiver. The combined data of the two receivers is used by the mobile control device algorithms to work out the uncertainty of integers in order to calculate accurate positioning information. Wubbena, et al. (1996) informs that the precision and consistency of RTK solution reduces with adding distance from the reference station. Virtual Reference Station or VRS is a concept that is interrelated to RTK. The figure about the conceptualization of VRS indicates the reference stations of GPS, which work at a distance of seventy kilometres. There is a communication network established between the reference stations through which, data is transferred from one station to other. According to Higgins (2001), the data that is received on the central computer from reference stations results in the modelling of spatial errors due to which, the working of GPS is restricted. As far as users are concerned, they think that it is because of the roving receivers that transfer a mobile call to the central computer due to which, the position of GPS is approximated and corrections are demanded. After this processing, the central computer is able to make corrections on the basis of the coordinates of roving receiver and reference receiver. In order to get more precise results and to make the value of dimensions much authentic and for the lessening of the problems due to which, restrictions are there in terms of survey of RTK, much improved impression of VRS survey is created. According to Cislowski and Higgins (2006), the VRS RTK technique is able to augment the productivity to nearly thirty to fifty percent. In addition, the time needed for procedures and people required for the jobs according to a human resource

Communication in business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Communication in business - Essay Example The multi-billion dollar corporation has various large stores spread across the United States and Canada. Wal-Mart Corporation on average has managed to attain a net profit of more than $3 billion USD. Wal-Mart has thousands of employees under its payroll. Wal-Mart, the largest private employer in the United States defines the standards of the retail industry in terms of the suppliers and employers. It is important for a large corporation like Wal-Mark to ensure that it satisfies its customers cater for its employees, and when it comes to the environment and the community, it should observe corporate social responsibility. As much as Wal-Mart Corporation has strived to ensure that it puts its mantra of â€Å"save money, live better† into action, there have been occasions in which it has let down its consumers, employees, the environment and community. This is through poor management and neglect of mission and social responsibility on the side of the managers. In essence, Wal-M art Corporation has put more effort in increasing profit for its shareholders than fulfilling corporate social responsibility. This paper examines how Wal-Mart Corporation has performed in terms of social, corporate responsibility. Wal-Mart and its employees A number of individuals, community groups and employees’ labor unions have expressed mixed feelings regarding the welfare of employees in Wal-Mart. In most cases, the welfare involves salary and wages, working conditions, safety, training and holidays. Employee salaries and wages have been a major issue on the debate in that employees’ labor unions, have asserted that Wal-Mart pays its employees a less than average living wage while it makes billions of profit (Lichtenstein, 2006: 2). Additionally, the payments made by Wal-Mart, as salaries and wages to its employees are way low expectations of the retail industry. Wal-Mart also offers less over-time working hours since their normal working hours are 34 hours a wee k while, on the other hand, its competitor only offer an average of 32 hour a week. This means that if an employee works over time he or she will not get the advantage of working for the two extra hours. Wal-Mart as a retail store makes a lot of profit, which fails to reflect on the salaries of its employees. Working conditions in Wal-Mart are not conducive enough since the company partly violates the â€Å"National Labor Relations Act† and the specification of basic human rights through â€Å"International Labor Organization†. There are many complaints regarding the harsh working conditions in Wal-Mart through intimidation, threats and firing of employees. Moreover, some complaints have been filed in court against Wal-Mart. In accordance with the â€Å"National Organization for Women† (NOW), Wal-Mart Corporation has demonstrated discriminatory practices against its employees, and thus it is a â€Å"Merchant of Shame†. Women have been on the forefront fig hting against the widespread gender discrimination in Wal-Mart Corporation (Walmart Watch, 2011: 6). Wal-Mart has gone to the extent of failing to pay its employees their hard-earned salaries. This case occurred in 2002 when more than 30 lawsuits claiming millions of dollars belonging to employees filed against Wal-Mart. The lawsuits entailed Wal-Mart forcing some employees to work during their breaks, illegally deleting employees’ time sheet and forceful working during off the clock working hours. Wal-Mart collaborated with managers and supervisors in

Discuss briefly the need for citation and referencing, and describe Essay

Discuss briefly the need for citation and referencing, and describe the main characteristics of the Harvard System of Referencing, the style favoured by this un - Essay Example Gray et al 2008, p. 114, term the use of proper use of citation and referencing as â€Å"academic integrity†. The reputation of a piece of academic work lies in proper use of citations and references. Any author has a right over the ideas and words present in their work and this right deems that it is morally important to their ideas and work are appropriately attributed, when used by others (Gray et al, 2008). When accurate citation and referencing is done it reflects the integrity of the author, for it shows that the author recognizes the sources and acknowledges these sources. This leads to the importance of referencing in letting others find the original sources used in the work (REFERENCING, 2000). This is why citations and references may be considered as signposts and acknowledgements. The signpost perspective arises from showing the location of the source, while the acknowledgement perspective arises from accepting the indebtedness to the source (Hunter, 2008). Hunter 2008, p.1 gives three reasons why citations and references are important, which are â€Å"ideas are the currency of academia†, â€Å"failing to cite violates the rights of the person who originated the idea and â€Å"academics needs to be able to trace the geneology of ideas†. Referencing in an academic work demonstrates the quality of the work, through the range of ideas that are used and acknowledged and does away with possibility of any charge of plagiarism (University of South Australia, 2007). The quality of work thus becomes another important contribution of proper referencing in a piece of academic work, as it reflects the thoroughness and the diligence of the author and through that contributes to the reputation or impression of the academic work (Glick, 2007). The Harvard System uses an author-date system. There are two places in an academic work that citations and references are used, which are in the

No topic Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

No topic - Coursework Example The theory is, however, silent on the concurrent promotion of one’s self interest as well as those of others; only emphasizing one’s interest as the only variable to fulfilling the basic goal of one’s happiness. It also does not inhibit actions that help others, but endorses actions of giving oneself pleasure, in effect, encouraging selfishness rather total foolishness. According to the theory, helping others does no good, for it is not only a denial of value of individualism, which in effect, degrades physically and/or emotionally wellbeing, but an offensive intrusion into other people’s business, which cannot be fulfilled by any other person other than the self, for true needs are best known only to the individual. Moreover, sustaining other people’s lives is sacrificing the individuals’ interest, which in itself is a zero sum game. The arguments are, however, at loggerheads with rational thinking. First, the argument that helping others only serves to mess them up is counterproductive. The idea of diminished individual value is also based on a false dichotomy, for it does not have to be a zero sum game as opined by the ethical egoists. Notably, the theory divides the world into two categories: the individual and all others, and actually places the former way above the latter, making it a discriminative theory grounded on irrational bases. On the contrary, we should care for others because their interests are comparable to

Critical Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Critical Marketing - Essay Example An examination of this and other contemporary marketing practices reveals emergent issues that deserve closer inspection in the area of marketing as a discipline. A number of these have already attracted academic investigation but the most important include the advent of the so-called relationship marketing and the increasing focus on ethics and social responsibility. There is, hence, an additional paradigm shift, which is best examined through the critical marketing perspective. Traditional Marketing The traditional marketing mix is composed of the so-called 4Ps, which was introduced by McCarthy back in the 1960s. This doctrine explains how marketing strategies, plans and approaches are designed according to four marketing elements: product, price, place (distribution channel); and, promotion (marketing communication). According to Barker and Angelopulo (2005), the fundamental task of marketing is to combine these four elements into a marketing program so that efficiency in dealing with customers is achieved. (p139) For several decades, this traditional marketing mix, dominated marketing practices because it is aligned with the core marketing principle of consumer-centrism. By 1990s, however, new marketing paradigms began to surface. The usefulness of the 4Ps became suspect as new variables emerge, calling for new marketing models. Day and Montgomery (1999) explained that â€Å"with growing reservation about the validity or the usefulness of the Four Ps concept and its lack of recognition of marketing as an innovating and adaptive force, the Four Ps now are regarded as merely handy framework.† (p3) The development stemmed from the schools and lines of thoughts that were brought about by new practices such as relationship marketing, quality management, market orientation, supply and value chain management, resource management, and networks. (Vargo and Lusch 2004, p1) Specific examples that demonstrate the changing face of marketing today is how digital t echnology revolutionizes the way people behave, interact with each other and their environment and consume products. Social networking websites are cases in point. They best represent the emergence of the so-called digital community through the Internet, which serve as some form of online version of society wherein people live their digital lifestyles: wherein they talk with each other, forge relationships, buy their needs, look for guides and directions, and so forth. These websites introduced new marketing channels. In consideration of the previously cited factors, Vargo and Lusch were able to posit how contemporary marketing has become fragmented. What happened was that the traditional conception of marketing has to be set aside in order to accommodate the requirements and challenges such as those posed by the addition of services and other intangible variables in the marketing practice as the marketplace included ideas and cultural artifacts as products. This is in addition to t he diversity in the roles of several actors and stakeholders in the development process such as institutions, ideologies, and the empowerment consumers. The dynamics of these new changes and how they call for new marketing models are best explained by a critical analysis of marketing. Critical Marketing According to French et al. (2010), critical marketing or the critical analysis

No topic Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

No topic - Coursework Example The theory is, however, silent on the concurrent promotion of one’s self interest as well as those of others; only emphasizing one’s interest as the only variable to fulfilling the basic goal of one’s happiness. It also does not inhibit actions that help others, but endorses actions of giving oneself pleasure, in effect, encouraging selfishness rather total foolishness. According to the theory, helping others does no good, for it is not only a denial of value of individualism, which in effect, degrades physically and/or emotionally wellbeing, but an offensive intrusion into other people’s business, which cannot be fulfilled by any other person other than the self, for true needs are best known only to the individual. Moreover, sustaining other people’s lives is sacrificing the individuals’ interest, which in itself is a zero sum game. The arguments are, however, at loggerheads with rational thinking. First, the argument that helping others only serves to mess them up is counterproductive. The idea of diminished individual value is also based on a false dichotomy, for it does not have to be a zero sum game as opined by the ethical egoists. Notably, the theory divides the world into two categories: the individual and all others, and actually places the former way above the latter, making it a discriminative theory grounded on irrational bases. On the contrary, we should care for others because their interests are comparable to

Micro Short Answer Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Micro Short Answer - Personal Statement Example This in itself cannot determine the power of choice. Other factors are critical when making any economic decision. These include opportunity costs, credit market, prices and desires. The fulfillment of the fundamental needs depends on the desire with the market prices playing a critical role. The purchase behavior depends on opportunity costs or tradeoffs. The credit market determines the ability to borrow and purchase items. For instance, people contract their spending whenever the high borrowing cost raises the consumption prices (Jiang 407). 2.0. Four resource categories A resource category refers to the source that provides benefits to people. A resource category can be in the form of money, staff, service or asset. The four primary categories of resources include government, education, health and family, and business. i. Education acts as an investment in an economy. An informed economy highly depends on skilled, knowledgeable and educated workforce. Goods education is an indica tion of increased economic performance. ii. Government is critical in creating jobs within the private sector and plays a significant role in finding projects. Whenever a particular government level funds a project, other levels of the government may be prompted to fund the same projects through private foundations and private capital funding. Government plays a significant role in fiscal stimulus package, monetary policy action, and other government interventions. iii. The family acts as a source of resource like labor, production and decision making. The population growth is a critical concept of economics as it determines demand and supply. On the other hand, health determines productivity of the population/family. iv. Business provides services to people. These include supply of goods and services, harnessing of resource and other capital, provision of employment and preserves the natural resources among others (Jiang 410). 3.0. Scarce factors of production The major factors of production are land, labor and capital. Limited factors of production imply shortage of such resources. This indicates insufficiency of productive resources in an economy towards the fulfillment of human needs and attainment of goals. Scarcity and its notion in economics. Scarcity refers to seemingly having unlimited wants in an environment of limited resources. In economics, scarcity indicates a fundamental economic problem where the productive resources are insufficient in an economy. Economics relates to purposeful human action, and without scarcity, economics cannot suffice. Scarcity creates the need for people to consume. Abundance never creates the need for people to make tradeoffs. Scarcity enhances rationing and encourages competitive behavior where people compete for the scarce goods (Jiang 412). 4.0. Production possibilities curve and relationship to the law of increasing costs Production possibility curve refers to the graph showing the combination of various amounts of c ommodities producible using fixed amount of each factor of production. This graphically bounds production set for a group of fixed input quantities. The curve indicates the maximum possible production level that defines the production efficiency. The increase in production of one good requires one to sacrifice a greater amount of another good. This is because of inequality in efficiency of resources. For instance, opportunity cost for producing j in terms of k

Artistic Behavior in the Human Female Essay Example for Free

Artistic Behavior in the Human Female Essay The passage above comes from the article, â€Å"Artistic Behavior in the Human Female,† by Jean Robertson (2003, p. 24). Robertson (2003) argued that female artists define and interpret female sexuality in diverse and conflicting ways, and by using different artistic strategies. Robertson makes assumptions about the woman’s body as a contested terrain, wherein being a woman continues to be a subject of heated debate. For him, how female artists view themselves as women, and as artists, shape their depiction of â€Å"femininity† and â€Å"female sexuality† in their artworks. One of the quotes that Robertson mentioned in his text comes from Simon de Beauvoir. In her seminal book, â€Å"The Second Sex,† she stressed that: â€Å"One is not born a woman, but, rather, becomes one. † I want to reflect on de Beauvoir’s statement and Robertson’s belief about the woman’s body. I agree with de Beauvoir that social experiences and political conditions impact the construction of â€Å"being a woman. † Society shapes how women and men see femininity and gender roles through establishing gender roles and expectations. An example is when a girl is â€Å"conditioned† by her mother to be a â€Å"woman,† by telling her how she should act as a â€Å"woman. This includes educating her about the toys she can and cannot use, and the games she can and cannot play. The girl learns that she should act and think a certain way, in order to be â€Å"feminine. † She learns that she cannot be boisterous or get involved in sports, because that would be too â€Å"manly† for her. This girl is the perfect example of â€Å"becoming† a woman. On the other hand, I also agree that being a woman is a biological and individual construct. A woman is a product of her biology, whether she likes it or not. This is why women are also defined by their sexual organs. Their biology also determines their sex, as well as their gender. Furthermore, being a woman is a product of individual desires and needs. Any woman can define her womanhood the way she also wants it to. Robertson indicated the existence of the pluralities of femininity. It is true that a woman’s body is a contested terrain, and for me, what is wrong with that? Is it not also possible to have multiple femininities, instead of having only one approach to define and to interpret what it means to be a woman? There is nothing wrong, in my opinion, of having different ways of being a woman, because to deny one approach to womanhood undermines the very essence of being a free woman. Journal entry 2 In â€Å"A conversation about race and class,† Childers and Hooks (1990) argued that gender should be expanded to include issues of race and class. They said that: â€Å"†¦we should begin by talking about how we experienced the struggle to challenge and expand the category of gender† (pp. 61-62). For them, people cannot understand gender in its whole sense, if racial and class issues are overlooked in gender analysis. This reading challenged my view of gender, by asking me to see gender through a much broader lens. I have not considered that gender issues also intersect racial and class issues. On the other hand, Childers and Hooks (1990) compelled me to think about the politics of gender. This is related to our discussions about gender as a political object. The politics of gender demonstrate that there are hierarchies to the feminine gender that are experienced by many women. Power is also affected by one’s class and race. If white female women feel that there is a glass ceiling at the workplace, lower-class black and Hispanic women face a greater and heavier glass ceiling in society. Because of their class and race, they feel and experience multiple glass ceilings- the ceiling of racial discrimination, the ceiling of class discrimination, and the ceiling of gender discrimination. These ceilings, on top of one another, represent something more than just a hindrance to economic development, but resemble ceilings that are directly pressed on these women’s bodies. They could hardly breathe, because there are just too many ceilings that make it difficult for them to even survive. Now, I look gender as an amalgam of issues that women bring to gender discourse. As a result, race and issue not only expand gender discourse, but considering them has also broadened my understanding of gender and its diverse conflicts. Journal entry 3 When feminists speak about feminism, they mostly see the opposition between the feminine and the masculine- the yin and the yang. We also discussed the binary opposition in class, which heightened my knowledge of how women are reduced to the lower spectrum of the opposition. The binary opposition also exists in differentiating mothers from fathers. Mothers are put in pedestals, while fathers are forgotten and scorned. Laqueur (1990) complained about this binary opposition in â€Å"The Facts of Fatherhood. † This is an interesting article that argued about the repression of the history of fatherhood. Laqueur (1990) posited that while women enjoyed being the â€Å"natural† parent, fathers were regarded as mere providers, or even as a backdrop to the family. He stressed that it is time for fathers to reclaim their right to be part of the parenting history, wherein their contributions to the formation of society are recognized and respected. This polemical article amuses and interests me significantly. It amuses me because at the back of my mind, I felt gender discrimination in reverse. I believe that mothers have specials bonds with their children, but this belief, however, is marked by sexism. Do not fathers also share special bonds with their children? Laqueur (1990) challenged the notion of motherhood, because it undermined the importance of fatherhood. In my mind, it is better to not differentiate mothers from fathers, which is the same as stopping ourselves from differentiating women and men. Women and men have their own strengths and weaknesses and none is more superior. In the same line of thought, mothers and fathers are also equal. Let us just call motherhood and fatherhood as parenthood and give fathers their rightful place in the history and the practice of nurturing human society. Furthermore, this is also an interesting article, because it challenged me to talk about being a woman in relation to being a man. Being a woman has its multiplicities, and now, being a man has its pluralism too. For me, these multiplicities, acknowledged as part of gender analysis, render two steps forward for true gender equality. Journal entry 4 In â€Å"Criticizing Feminist Criticism,† Gallop, Hirsch, and Miller (1990) debated on the purposes and development of feminine criticism. Their main point is that feminist criticism writers have gone to the extreme, by pulverizing each other’s feminist views. They believe that this process is futile in understanding and improving the development of gender discourse and feminism. They asserted that feminism can be criticized in a more comprehensive manner, wherein there is no right or wrong feminism. I chose this article because it threads on sensitive issues, wherein the personal versus the collective idea of feminism clashes. Feminists have different worldviews about gender roles, sexuality, and femininity, and they criticize each other in different ways. I have never thought that feminist criticism has become too unconstructive. This is not my idea of criticism at all. I think about my own criticism of feminist criticism and I cannot help but agree that criticism is not about â€Å"thrashing† feminist theories (p. 350). Criticism is also about adding something to existing theories, in ways that can benefit the understanding of what it means to be a woman and how different understandings contribute to a wide range of feminism discourse. I earnestly believe also that feminists cannot define feminism in one way or several ways alone. Feminism should be viewed as a huge mess of ideas and values, different and special to women and groups, who fight for and because of different issues. Yes, it is a mess alright, because being a woman is a dynamic process that is also a part of being an individual and being a member of one’s race, class, and so on. Being a woman cannot ever be a tidy place, wherein women think the same and act the same. I would rather have it as a mess- wherein women are free to think and re-think feminism, in relation to their personal experiences and values. References Childers, M. Hooks, B. (1990). A conversation about race and class. In M. Hirsch E. F. Keller (Eds. ), Conflicts in feminism (pp. 60-81). New York, NY: Routledge. Gallop, J. , Hirsch, M. , Miller, N. K. (1990). Criticizing feminist criticism. In M. Hirsch E. F. Keller (Eds. ), Conflicts in feminism (pp. 349-369). New York, NY: Routledge. Laqueur, T. W. (1990). The facts of fatherhood. In M. Hirsch E. F. Keller (Eds. ), Conflicts in feminism (pp. 205-221). New York, NY: Routledge. Robertson, J. (2003). Artistic behavior in the human female. In B. Stirratt C. Johnson (Eds. ), Feminine persuasion: art and essays on sexuality (pp. 23-38). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Effectiveness Of Communication In Project Management

Effectiveness Of Communication In Project Management A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service or result (PMI, 2008, pg. 5). A project is a sequence of unique, complex and connected activities having one goal or purpose and that must be completed by a specific time, within budget, and according to specification (Wysocki and McGary, 2003, p. 3). A project comprises of number of activities that must be completed in some specific order or sequence according to their technical requirements. Activities in a project are unique, complex and connected in a sense that no two activities can occur under the same conditions which make them unique; the activities are not simple, and the output of one activity becomes the input to another which makes them connected (Wysocki and McGary, 2003). The most important difference between the management control of on-going operations and the management control of projects is that the on-going operations continue indefinitely, whereas a project starts, moves forward from one milestone to the next, and then stops (Anthony and Govindarajan, 2005, p. 790). Projects are temporary, unique and require progressive elaboration (Gardiner, 2005, p. 2). The first characteristic is that projects have a definite life span and they exist for a limited time varying from few days to several years although its end products may sustain indefinitely. This temporary nature of project indicates a definite beginning and an end. The end is reached when the objectives of the project are achieved; the need for project no longer exists or the objectives of the project cannot be met due to lack of resources and the project is terminated. The second characteristic is that each and every project will be different from other projects in their own way. The last characteristic is that as the project progresses, work required is slowly defined with information being added over time (Gardiner, 2005). A project usually has a single objective and the time horizon is the end of the project. The objective of a project is to produce a satisfactory product, within a specified time period, and at an optimum cost (Burke, 2007). Projects often involve trade-offs between scope, schedule, and cost (Gardiner, 2005). Less scope might mean less costs or a shortened schedule leads to overtime and thus increasing costs. Plans for projects can be changed frequently and drastically. A project begins when management has reviewed the nature of what is to be done in the project and approved it. The project ends when its objective has been accomplished, or when it has been cancelled. Projects can be of various durations. Some project may last for a few days, a few weeks, or several years. Its content can be similar to work done before, or unlike anything ever done before (Burke, 2007). Most projects start small, build up to a peak activity and then taper off as completion near (Anthony and Govindaraja n, 2005). An international project is a project that involves multiple locations, entities, organizations and business units (Lientz and Rea, 2003). International projects typically are simultaneously multicultural projects relating to diverse cultures be it national, organizational, or functional cultures (KÃ ¶ster, 2010, p.3). In international projects, stakeholders and organizations who have different cultural and educational background work together. International projects are different from national projects because of language and dialect variations; religious practices; legal, regulatory and reporting requirements; technology level differences in different areas (Lientz and Rea, 2003). The difference between standard projects and international projects are shown in the table below: Attribute Standard projects International Projects Organizations Single Multiple organizations and departments System and technology Homogeneous Multiple systems Culture Single and common culture Multiple, varied cultures Organization Can be focussed on the project Many other competing demands for resources Self-interest More easily understood More complex to understand Table 1 Comparison of standard and international projects (Lientz and Rea, 2003) In short, a project can be considered as a series of activities and tasks that have A specific objective Defined start and end dates Consume human and nonhuman resources Are multifunctional 2.2. Project Life Cycle A project can be considered to have a life-cycle that is divided into four phases. Those phases are: Initiation and definition, Planning and development, Execution and control and finally Closure (Gardiner, 2005; Burke, 2007; Keeling, 2000). A clear understanding of these phases permits the project manager to control resources effectively to achieve the project objectives. D:DocumentsMscDissertationRequiredPlc.JPG Figure 2 Project Life Cycle (Gardiner, 2005) 2.2.1 Initiation and definition This phase represents the start of the project. This is a conceptual phase which includes the preliminary evaluation of an idea (Kerzner, 2006). This phase sets the scope of the project (Gardiner, 2005; Keeling, 2000). It forms the basis for deciding if a particular function or feature is within the scope of the project. This is the phase where new ideas and options are considered and tested to ensure the project objectives can be achieved making use of resources effectively (Burke, 2007). The project ideas are usually derived from the identification of a demand, an available resource or a need (Potts, 2002). The initiation and definition phase is mainly about formulating goals and strategies (Keeling, 2000). 2.2.2 Planning and development During the planning phase, the time plan is set into detail and the planning of the project is conducted with great accuracy. In the project planning phase, a project planning team specifies the rough estimates that were made when it was decided to implement the project. The project planning phase is often the most challenging phase for a project manager as he/she needs to make an educated guess of the stakeholders to be involved, resources and equipment needed to complete the project (Wysocki and McGray, 2003). The project manager needs to plan communications and procurement activities and create a comprehensive suite of project plans which set out a clear project roadmap ahead (Gardiner, 2005). Planning helps in reducing uncertainty, increases understanding of the goals and objectives to be achieved and improves resource efficiency (Wysocki and McGray, 2003). Thus detailed specifications for the product, time schedules, and cost budget are prepared and a management control system, a task control system and an organization chart developed. Furthermore a responsible manager is identified for each work package. Even on projects with little complexity a plan for planning exists and the planning process itself can be seen as a subproject (Anthony and Govindarajan, 2005). 2.2.3 Execution and control This is the phase in which the plans are put into operation (Keeling, 2000). The rate of expenditure is at its peak in this phase (Gardiner, 2005; Burke, 2007). Executing the plan involves four steps (Wysocki and McGray, 2003) Identify the specific resources that will be required to accomplish the work defined in the plan. Assign workers to activities. Schedule activities with specific start and end dates. Launch the plan. No matter how attentive the team is when creating the plan, the project work may not go according to plan. There may always be some schedule slips (Wysocki and McGray, 2003). To minimize this, the progress of the project should be regularly monitored. This is usually done in the controlling phase. Completed work is measure against the plan to monitor the progress of the project and avoid potential problems which may occur in the future. 2.2.4 Closing Closing a project means that the project has been completed and the results of the project can be submitted to the client. The closing phase evaluates what occurred during the project and provides historical information for use in planning and executing later projects (Keeling, 2000; Kerzner, 2006). 2.3. Role of Project Manager The role of project manager is to attain the project objectives (Gardiner, 2005). The project manager must be experienced, capable, and competent in getting the project work done on time, within budget and according to specification (Wysocki and McGray, 2003). The project manager must simultaneously see to the needs of the sponsor and other stakeholders, manage the project life cycle and the performance of the project team, including his or her performance (Gardiner, 2005). It is a role that involves a mix of abilities, combining management with leadership and political awareness (Pinto, 2000). The project manager is responsible for coordinating and integrating activities across multiple, functional lines. The integration activities performed by the project manager include activities which are necessary to develop a project plan; execute a plan and to make changes to the plan (Kerzner, 2006). A project manager must be able to understand the project detail but manage from the overall perspective (PMI, 2008). As an architect of the project plan, the project manager must provide complete task definitions; resource requirement definitions; major time table milestones; definition of end item quality and reliability requirements and the basis for performance measurement (Kerzner, 2006). Project managers influence people to take action (Gardiner, 2005). This requires an ability to communicate in a style appropriate for the individual concerned. If communication in the project is of low quality, the project will be more likely to fail (Armstrong, 1992). People working within a project always communicate but the quality of the communication must be high. The purpose and direction of the project lie on the ability of the project manager to communicate well with the partners within the project (Briner et al., 1996). One important role of the project leader is to create active communication among the project members by staying in touch with individuals and passing information between different members and between them and the funding organization (Briner et al., 1996). The project manager must be able to convert the inputs (i.e. resources such as capital, materials, equipments, facilities, information, personnel etc.) into output of products, services and ultimately profi ts (Kerzner, 2006). In order to do this, the project manager needs strong communicative and interpersonal skills, must become familiar with the operations of each line organization and must have knowledge of the technology used (Kerzner, 2006). Project leader should have high level of communication skills to be able to successfully manage with the project. The project managers role is like a spider weaving the web and should be the centre of communication and events (Briner et al., 1996). One of the major responsibilities of the project manager is planning. If project planning is performed correctly, then it is conceivable that the project manager will work himself out of the job because the project can run itself (Kerzner, 2006).The chief executive role of the project manager involves more than that of being accountable for the activities of the project (Cusworth and Franks, 1993). It implies that the manager is expected to make things happen by active involvement. The manager role as co-ordinator is vital in co-ordinating the efforts of the project team and the stakeholders. The project manager should define the ethics, norms and values of their project team, establishing the atmosphere of the organization and the way that the various project tasks are approached. The project managers role as a diplomat requires high level of sensitivity and good negotiating skills (Cusworth and Franks, 1993). He/she must be able to negotiate the relationship between the project and its environment and must be able to ensure the political support. The project manager along with his/her team should brainstorm to decide who the various stakeholders in the project might be. The project manager should go out and talk to all of those stakeholders and develop the necessary interviewing and probing skills which enable him/her to draw out of them what their expectations are. Often, the stakeholders are uncertain about what they want (Potts, 2002; PMI, 2008). The project manager should engage in a dialogue with them to help them to think through their expectations (Jandt, 2007). The project managers initial consideration of stakeholder expectations will help him/her to begin to understand the kinds of resources the project might require and will ensure positive outcome (PMI, 2008). Talking about resources does not mean only talking about tangible resources of money, time and materials, but also about those intangible resources of technical skills, non-technical managerial and communication skills, and the vital intangible of commitment and support from particular people within the project organisation and outside it (Jandt, 2007). The project manager should need to map the risk that may occur in a project by going through a structured process (PMI, 2008). Such process might include: brainstorm possible risks; considering what was wrong in similar projects previously; clustering into related topics; weighting-seriousness and probability; focusing on the very serious and highly probable; defining the project type, and review typical risks; planning how to run the project with the risks in mind. Highlight where in the project the risks will be most crucial; deciding how to reduce the risks so that the chances and consequences of failure are minimised. The project can be considered as temporary organization because it has limited time frame, limited budget, specific goals and activities (Maylor, 1999). Some of such temporary organizations might be inter-organizational projects that involve many organizations having different specialties or expertise (Maylor, 1999). In such projects, it is very important for the project manager to ensure the flow of information from the different organizations involved within the project. The flow of information is vital for the success of such project or organization (Burke, 2007). Since these innovation projects are of interdisciplinary and innovative, the share of experiences, knowledge, and the cooperation in different stages of the project development become absolute necessary for its success. Managing international projects that are of multi organizational type is not an easy task, especially when these organizations are from different technical, cultural, political backgrounds and have different management style in their approach for handling a task (Lientz and Rea, 2003; Koster, 2010). A careful and detailed preparation of projects, especially for inter organizational ones due to their complexity, in their planning phase is vital for their success. The manager should have high experience in planning such projects. To summarize things up, the project manager should have the following attributes Ability to select and develop an operational team. Leadership skills and management ability. Ability to anticipate problems, solve problems and make decision. Ability to integrate the project stakeholders. Operational flexibility. Ability to plan, expedite and get things done. Ability to negotiate, persuade and make deals. Understand the environment within which the project is being managed. Ability to review monitor and apply control. Ability to keep the stakeholders and client happy. COMMUNICATION: ITS ROLE AND EFFECTIVENESS IN PROJECT MANAGEMENT 3.1 Definition of Communication Communication is a process in which information is transmitted from a source to a receiver through various channels (JPIM, 2000). Communication means act of transferring information, exchange of information, message which is either written or verbal, and an idea for conveying thoughts effectively (Kerzner, 2001). A good definition of project communication is Project communication management includes the process required to ensure timely and appropriate generation, collection, distribution, storage, retrieval and ultimate disposition of project information (PMI, 2008, p. 243). In a project environment, communication refers to the exchange or sharing of messages and information to convey meaning and knowledge between project manager, internal and the external stakeholders (Verma, 1996). Communication is a process involving the exchange of message and the creation of meaning. No two individuals ever attach the same meaning to a message or symbol. Effectiveness of communication depends on the degree to which the individuals attach similar meanings to the messages exchanged. Stated differently, communication is effective when individuals are able to minimize misunderstandings. To say that meaning in communication is never totally same for all communicators is not to say that communication is impossible or even difficult only that is imperfect (Fisher, 1978, p. 257). When individuals communicate, they attach meaning to messages they construct and transmit to others. They also attach meaning to messages they receive from others. There are different types of communication such as verbal, written and non-verbal (Verma, 1996; Mehta, 2008). Verbal communication gives a lot of flexibility to the speaker. It is mainly used in face to face meetings, group meetings and over the telephone. While communicating verbally, the speaker can communicate with voice as well as body language. Written communication on the other hand is usually more precise (Mehta, 2008). Written communication can be in the form of letters, memos, notices, emails, reports, proposals memoranda etc. Another type of communication is the non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication refers to a speakers actions and attributes that are not purely verbal. It can be reflected in the way people dress, their tone and stance while talking, their gestures, facial expressions and their body language (Verma, 1996). 3.2 Importance of Communication Communication is an important skill for project managers to accomplish effective project management (Analoui, 1993). This skill is vital because part of management is motivating people to perform their assigned duties to the best of their ability (Perret, 1982; Scott, 1989). Effective communication is the key to success for the individual as well as for the project (Verma, 1996, p.23). By using communication skills, the project manager help to plan, direct, control and coordinate their operations throughout the project life cycle (Verma, 1996). Most of the communication activities of project managers involve interpersonal communication and project communications, sharing information with the project team members and other stakeholders. Communication is the nerve system of leadership, teamwork, cooperation and control. It determines the quality of relationships, levels of satisfaction, the extent of projects success or failure. Cleland and King (1988) in a study of fifty project managers found that managers named communication as one of the vital ingredients for successful project implementation. Moreover, Morris and Hough (1986) also argues that clear communication is necessary for project success and that effective communication is the key to high staff morale which is vital for project success. According to Ruuska (1996, p.67) More than half of the management problems in projects are more or less caused by poorly looked-after communication. Communication acts as a resource as well as tool in project management. As a resource, communication can be compared to other project resources such as time, money, people and equipment. It should be taken into consideration when planning along with the resources. On the other hand, communication is a tool which can be used for effective utilization of other project resources. Communication helps in developing relationships in the organization (Ruuska, 1996). A projec t manager uses communication more than any other element in the project management process to ensure that the team members are working cohesively on project problems and opportunities (Verma, 1996). Communication plays an important role in connecting different parts of an organization together and its external environment (Taylor and Watling, 1979). In an organization, communication is needed to inform the members about the on-going status of the project. For an effective management, it is necessary to have a two way communication channel, to and fro in and across a project organization. A good communication channel can also allow progress to be monitored; difficulties to be reported back to the executive management and expert specialist can advise on technical or commercial problems to be sought by any participant (Keeling, 2003). Communication plays an important role in influencing the whole organization that may be affected and not only those immediately involved in the change. However, the importance of communication is often neglected in many projects (Toney and Power, 1997). Furthermore, lack of communication also results in many failures in change projects (Orr and McKenzie, 1992). Failure to maintain adequate information flows, conflict among project staff or between project administrators and professional staff, as being among some of the causes for inadequate execution, operation and supervision in projects (Rondinelli, 1977). These problems which are in essence communication problems are likely contributors to project failure. Hammond (1990) states that if the intrinsic difficulties such as limitation of funds are taken away, the reason some projects fail is because of problems with people, problems that effective communication could go a long way in solving. Lack of effective communication may lead to misunderstanding. Frustration can be seen in employers due to ineffective or poor communication and may result in conflicts. Communication breakdown is a prime cause of discord or conflict (Keeling, 2003). 3.3 Model of Communication A basic model of communication is shown below: Description: C:Documents and SettingsmnmbaramDesktopcommunication model.JPG Source: Project Management Institute, 2008. This model shows how communication is transferred between the sender and the receiver. The model includes the following components: Encode. The process of putting an idea or a thought into a symbol. Message. The encoded thought or idea. Medium. Means by which the encoded message is transmitted. Noise. Anything that distorts the message. Decode. To translate the message back into thoughts and ideas. The components in the communication model should be taken into account when discussing project communication. The sender determines what information he or she intends to share, encodes this information in the form of a message, and then transmits the message as a signal to the receiver. The destination decodes the transmitted message to determine its meaning and then responds accordingly. If the message decoded is the same as the sender intended, communication is successful (Jandt, 2007). Whenever information is sent from the sender to the receiver, the sender is responsible for making the information clear to the receiver so that the receiver understands it clearly. The receiver is responsible for making sure that the information is received is in its original form and understood correctly. In order to make sure that the message is sent and understood properly, feedback is required (Verma, 1996). 3.4 Channels of Communication Three basic channels of communication in a project environment exist (Verma, 1996). They are upward communication, downward communication and lateral communication. 3.4.1. Upward communication This type of communication is called subordinate/manager communication (Fielding, 2006). It involves communication from the lowest positions in the company to the highest positions. It contains information that higher management needs to evaluate the overall performance of the project for which they are responsible (Verma, 1996). This communication is in the form of reports, memoranda or messages about individual problems and performance; company policies and practices and specific staff problems. 3.4.2 Downward Communication This communication involves managers communicating down the line to subordinates. It provides direction and control for project team members and other employees. It may include information such as missions and goals of the organisation, feedback to subordinates on their performance; procedures to be followed etc (Fielding, 2006). 3.4.3 Lateral communication This communication takes place between departments in a company or project manager and his/her peers (Verma, 1996). This communication is in the form of reports on the activities of departments to keep each other informed and information to managers on company policies and progress so that they are able to make informed decisions (Fielding, 2006). 3.5 Effectiveness of Communication Effective communication involves minimizing misunderstandings. To be effective in communicating with people, everyone must be mindful. Communicating effectively and appropriately are important aspects of being perceived as a skilled communicator (Gudykunst and Kim, 1992). Communication is only effective if the following two conditions are met (Rogers, 1976 cited in JPIM, p. 364). Firstly, the source must be willing to share the information. However, such willingness may be absent at times because the source may not be able to transmit the information, is reluctant to transmit the information or thinks that the information is irrelevant. Secondly, the information transmitted is only effective if it has an effect on the receiver. The effect maybe either change in knowledge, change in attitude or a change in behavior. Ineffective communication can occur for a variety of reasons when individuals communicate. They may not encode the message in a way that it can be understood by others, people may misinterpret what they say or both can occur simultaneously. Effective communicators are those who are motivated; knowledgeable and possess certain communication skills (Samovar and Porter, 2004, pg. 303). Project managers should be motivated; should have a positive attitude towards communication event and they should put every effort to bring about constructive results. They should have the knowledge of what topics, words or meanings are required in a situation. They should know how to assemble, plan and perform content knowledge in a particular situation. Their communication skills should be high enough to accomplish their goals (Samovar and Porter, 2004, pg. 303). For effective communication in project management, it is essential that communication should be focused. If used effectively, can reduce non-productive effort, avoid duplication and help eliminate mistakes (Clarke, 1998). Communicating effectively helps in identification of problems, helps in generating ideas leading to better solutions and helps in dealing with uncertainty. Moreover, it encourages team-work, motivates the team and ensures that every member of the team is involved (Gannon, 1994). Not only effective communication is essential for project implementation and control, it is a powerful weapon against stakeholders conflict. Communication usually fails for the following reasons; not having a clear goal in mind; not establishing relationship; being impatient; not hearing what others have to say; overabundance of ego; assuming that others have the same information on the subject that you have; mistaking interpretations for facts; failure to analyse and handle resistance (Ritz , 1990). 3.6 Communication in stages of Project Life Cycle Communication is important during various phases of the project life cycle. During the initiation/planning phase, communication planning involves determining the information and communication needs of the stakeholders: who wants what information, when will they need it, and how will it be given to them (PMI, 2008). Some other things to be given consideration are the methods of communication to be utilized during the project. These are the technologies or methods used to transfer information back and forth among project entities. Different forms of communication will need to be utilized for communicating with different types of stakeholders and different occasions. Different assumptions and constraints that will affect the project also need to be carefully thought out. Once these factors are kept in mind, develop and document a communication plan that can be shared with the entire set of stakeholders, including team members, management customers and vendors. This type of methodical pl anning can lead to a carefully constructed project communication plan (Mehta, 2008). The plan should detail out what type of communication will take place during the project, who will receive what type of information, where the information will be stored, the schedule of communication such as status reports and project team meetings. Communication with stakeholders from start to the finish of a project is essential to all project management (Verma, 1996). Once the initial communication guidelines and expectations of the project have been established, the communication plan can be executed. During the execution phase of the project, the three main communication functions are information distribution, performance reporting and project control. Information distribution involves making needed information available to project stakeholders in a timely manner. It includes implementing communication management plan and responding to unexpected requests for information (PMI, 1998, p. 106). Some of the essential tools and technologies for information distribution are communication skills and information distribution system. Many of the project deliverables and records result from this function such as meeting minutes and decision documents. Various tools and techniques can be used for performance reporting such as performance reviews, variance analysis, traffic light reports, earned value analysis and trend analysis (Scott and billing, 1998). The output that results from performance reporting are performance reports and project change requests that is generated due to corrective action that needs to be taken to address a variance from the original plans or additional customer needs. All of these functions are useful for project control. Keeping the project on track according to the project plan, budget and estimates that have been laid out is of prime importance. If the project needs to vary from any of these established plans, the project information distribution system should be utilized. The project stakeholders need to be informed and new expectations need to be set. Following a set of established project management processes can be helpful in identifying events that are not planned for. When unexpected events occur , assessing the impact and quickly communicating them to the affected people according to your established communication plan can be efficiently addressed them. Some simple things that a project manager needs to keep i

Arthur Kornberg :: essays research papers

A. Personal Information Arthur Kornberg (1918-), American biochemist and physician, claims he has never met â€Å"a dull enzyme.† He has devoted his life to pursuing and purifying these critical protein molecules. His love of science did not spring from a family history rooted in science. He was born on March 3rd, 1918, the son of a sewing machine operator in the sweatshops of the Lower East Side of New York City. His parents, Joseph Aaron Kornberg and Lena Rachel Katz, were immigrant Jews who made great sacrifices to ensure the safety of their family. They had fled Poland, for if they had stayed, they would have been murdered in a German concentration camp. His grandfather had abandoned the paternal family name Queller, of Spanish origin. This was done to escape the fate of the army draft; he had taken the name of Kornberg, a man who had already done his service. His father used their meager earnings to bring and settle his family in New York City and was thrust into the sweatshops as a sewing machi ne operator. He, along with his brother Martin, 13 years older and sister Ella, nine years older, was encouraged by loving parents to obtain a good education. The public school reinforced this ideal. Education was the road of opportunity for social and economic mobility out of the sweatshops. His early education in grade school and Abraham Lincoln High School in Brooklyn was distinguished only by his â€Å"skipping † several grades. There was nothing inspirational about his courses except the teachers’ encouragement to get good grades. When he received a grade of 100 in the New York State Regents Examination, his chemistry teacher glowed with pride. It was the first time in over twenty years of teaching that a student of his had gotten a perfect grade. Arthur was a brilliant student who graduated from high school at the age of fifteen. He enrolled in City College in uptown Manhattan. Competition among a large body of bright and highly motivated students was fierce in all subjects. His high school interest in chemistry carried over into college. After receiving his B.S. degree in biology and chemistry in 1937, and since City College offered no graduate studies or research laboratories at that time, he became one of two hundred pre-med students at the Universi ty of Rochester. All through college he worked as a salesman in his parents’ furnishing store, and earned about $14 a week.

What Is Time?

Since the very beginning of the human history and up to the present times, the question of time has been a matter of the major philosophical and mathematical concern. Where scientists sought to establish the single and universal definition of time as applied to astronomical and geometrical linear concepts, philosophers tried to reconsider the relevance of time through the prism of its relativity, instability, and its relation to eternity. Given the continuous evasiveness of time and its never-stopping nature, it is difficult to deny that the concept of time comprises numerous features that are not always readily visible to researchers. Simultaneously, our growing dependence on time turns the latter into the critical component of our daily functioning. In reality, and taking into account numerous ideas about time, time is an intangible category which in our world is directly associated with the movement of space bodies around the earth, and which also exemplifies a relative measure of events. Really, the whole history of mankind is associated with the continuous search for the single and universal definition of time. For years and centuries hundreds of scientists, archeologists, anthropologists, philosophers, and religious adherents sought to create a clearer vision of time. In the light of its evasiveness, and given the intangible nature of time, it was more and more difficult for humans to come to a simple and common agreement with regard to the definition of time. Now, as we find ourselves more and more dependent on time, we also find it more and more difficult to determine, what it is that we see through the clocks, alarms, and calendars. It would be fair to say that â€Å"time is represented through change, such as the circular motion of the moon around the earth. The passing of time is indeed closely connected to the concept of space† (Science Daily), but is it enough to say that time is nothing more but the motion of celestial bodies around the earth? Certainly, the concept of time extends far beyond the boundaries of space consciousness, and while individuals try to determine what time is, a whole set of considerations and criteria needs to be taken into account. Historical and philosophic wisdom may help clarify the major time controversies. To begin with, it is in the dialogue between Plato and Timaeus that we first encounter the growing ancient interest toward time. â€Å"He thought of making a certain movable image of eternity, and, at once with ordering heaven, he made an eternal image going according to number, that which we have named Time† (Reichenbach 43). Here, the definition of time comprises both physical and metaphysical understanding of continuous motion, and also confirms the cosmological nature of time on our planet. For Plato, the concept of time is nothing else but a unique combination of eternity and change. This uniqueness is justified by the growing confidence that time, on the one hand, exemplifies stability and a measure of everything, and on the other hand, works as a never-stopping evasive machine. Nevertheless, it is with Plato that scientists and philosophers have gradually come to realize the importance and role of space bodies in designing the vision of time and its relativity. It is with Plato that we view space bodies as the major divisions of circular time. Space bodies link the concept of time to the concept of motion. Through the dialogue between Plato and Timaeus we see stars and other planets as indicators of intangible time; ultimately, it is space that is associated both with eternity and continuous motion. Does that mean that time is a purely philosophical concept and has nothing to do with specific mathematical sciences? In reality, scientists in general, and physicists in particular truly believe that they can scientifically justify and ground the concept of time. Although the scientific side of time is still unclear, it is obvious that researchers and scholars in science will further use their mathematical and mechanical knowledge to develop new time theories. Einstein is well-known for his works about relativity and time, but before Einstein, Galileo and Isaac Barrow also tried to produce a single definition of time. For Barrow, â€Å"time denotes not an actual existence but a certain capacity or possibility for a continuity of existence; just as space denotes a capacity for intervening length. Time does not imply motion, as far as its absolute and intrinsic nature is concerned; [†¦] time implies motion to be measurable; without motion we do not perceive the passage of Time† (Whitrow, Fraser & Soulsby 76). Barrow identifies Time with slow and steady motion, but he concludes that it is impossible to define Time without linking it to the steady and continuous motion of stars, the Moon, and the Sun (Whitrow, Fraser & Soulsby 76). As a result, the motion of celestial bodies can looks like the common thread between different definitions of time. Certainly, Barrow was not unique in his desire to link time to space shifts, but he was one of the first to recognize time as a mathematical concept. For Barrow as well as for his followers, Time was a linear mathematical function. It was associated with a circular line. Barrow viewed time as the concept independent of everything else, and as the concept that flew regardless of economic, social, and environmental changes. However, Barrow was not the only one trying to discuss time from scientific viewpoint. Numerous scientific theories have been developed to prove or deny the relevance of different time definitions. For example, Newton viewed time not as motion but as a universal instrument of measurement; according to his theory, time was not a relative but an absolute category (Brann 49). His ideas were later rejected by Leibniz, who was confident that Time was nothing else but a predetermined sequence of events; for Leibniz, events were the fundamental components of Time (Brann 56). In the variety of visions and ideas, none of them could become the basis for creating an objective theory of time. Time was always surrounded by a realm of myths and subjective opinions that lacked comprehensibility. It was not before Einstein that all previous assumptions have been reduced to nonsense, and it was not before Einstein that a completely new philosophy of Time has been developed. â€Å"It might appear possible to overcome all the difficulties attending the definition of ‘time’ by substituting the position of the small hand of my watch for ‘time’† (Brann 80; Seeman 104). Why watch? The truth is that it is virtually impossible to avoid subjectivity and relativity, when determining Time by watch. Also, it is impossible to guarantee synchronicity of all clocks and watches on the planet. The choice of the watch as the instrument of Time is not accidental, as far as it exemplifies the dramatic differences in perceptions, which individuals hold with regard to Time. Einstein’s beliefs about time are rooted in earlier theories, which linked time to the motion of bodies in space. Simultaneously, Einstein was the first to link Time to the speed of light and the notion of simultaneity. Where the movement of watch had to denote the process or the motion of space bodies, this very watch had to denote the simultaneity of things. In other words, through the prism of Time, each event had to be linked to each particular moment of Time, or to each particular position of the watch hands (Whitrow, Fraser & Soulsby 87). The use of the watch as the measure of time, however, was only possible for the events that took place in close proximity. Thus, linking the concept of time to the concept of watch was possible only for the events that took place at close proximity. In case of events that took place at different locations, the concept of the watch immediately lost its relevance. Does that mean that we cannot reconsider the concept of Time without tying it to the concept of the speed of light? Or does that mean that Einstein’s vision of Time is the most convenient and applicable of all Time theories? In reality, all time theories and assumptions are not without their fallacies. Time equally comprises rational and irrational features. From the rational perspective, time can be explained through the prism of space movements, or their sequence. Irrationally, time looks like a predetermined order of things, or their sequence that divides our lives into â€Å"before† and â€Å"after† and flows independently regardless of the major environmental or physical changes. In the light of numerous theories and assumptions with regard to time, it is impossible to limit the concept of time to rational or irrational considerations. Moreover, it is the balance of rational and irrational that may help create the single and the most relevant theory of time. Leibniz wrote that â€Å"Time is the order of existence of those things which are not simultaneous. Thus time is the universal order of changes when we do not take into consideration the particular kinds of change† (Seeman 77). Unfortunately, time is far from being universal but is still a measure of the order of changes, regardless of the nature of each particular change. From the differences and commonalities between philosophic and rational beliefs about Time, the latter comes out as the concept, which is closely tied to cosmology and the motion of celestial bodies around the earth, as well as the relative (and never absolute) measure of events and their sequences, with this relativity being integrally linked to the notion of light. Conclusion Over the course of the human history, dozens of philosophers and scientists sought to determine what Time is and what changes it produces on our vision of reality. Where philosophers held irrational beliefs about Time, scientists tried to link Time to mathematical concepts. Despite the differences, most of them viewed Time through the prism of cosmology and the motion of celestial bodies. Simultaneously, it was not before Einstein that Time ceased to be an absolute concept. As a result, through the major commonalities and differences in individual beliefs about Time, the latter stands out as a relative measure of events and their sequences, closely linked to the concept of cosmology and the motion of celestial bodies.